1. Introduction: Changing Paradigms

The world is changing and has been changing us. The way we think, the way we approach our problems, our value systems, and the way our societies operate are changing accordingly. Paradigms that pertain to culture, science, or industry are changing to integrate new understanding and express a new look at life on earth.

We are witnessing major changes and developments, and we reached the time of the loss of the stable state (Kuhn, 1970, Schon, 1971). Explaining this statement might go beyond the scope of this article. However, three paradigm shifts can be identified. The following is a brief discussion of these shifts. They are presented in a sequential manner, where one paradigm shift leads to another.

Things versus Relations between Things

According to Capra et al. (1992),  the reductionism of the old paradigm was reflected in the belief that the dynamics of the whole could be understood from the properties of the parts, but in the new paradigm, the properties of the parts can be understood only from the dynamics of the whole. John Turner affirms this view when he argues that there are no parts at all, what we call a part is a pattern in an inseparable web of relationships.

Tracing back the literature that has been developed in the sixties, one can find that this view has been introduced by Christopher Alexander (1966) who identified three basic abilities for investigating and understanding the physical environment. These are: 1) the holistic behavior of the phenomenon which we are focusing on, 2) the parts within the thing and the interaction among those parts which causes the holistic behavior we have defined, and 3) the way in which this interaction among these parts causes the holistic behavior defined.

Corresponding to the preceding views, one can argue that different assumptions of value can provide insights into the understanding of new paradigms. In the old paradigm, the value of tourism, for example, is assumed to be in the quantifiable attributes of hotels and tourist villages, sometimes including their immediate environments. In the new paradigm, tourism values lie in the relationships between the process, the product, the users, and the social and environmental contexts. In the old paradigm, tourism has been conceived in terms of what it is, rather than what it does for local populations and the way in which people interact with built and natural environments. In this respect, one can assert that by focusing on relationships the new paradigm converts the insoluble problems into encouragingly practical tasks and promising ends.

Economy and Ecology:
       Isolation versus Integration

In the new paradigm, the concept of sustainability has emerged as a reaction to environmental depletion and degradation. According to Capra et al. (1992), the acceptance of the concept of sustainable development means the harmonization of the concepts of economy and ecology, which increasingly share the same meaning the intelligent running of household with the available human and natural resources.

The old paradigm has been characterized by three basic assumptions: man is more valuable than nature, man has the right to subdue and conquer nature, and has no responsibility for nature. On the other hand, in the new paradigm the concept of sustainable development is conceived to value the environment alongside economic development, and to value social equity alongside material growth. In this respect, one can assert that sustainable development relies on a change in culture, supported by an adapted economic system and fed by appropriately used technology. The same technology that has been employed to conquer and subdue nature, needs to be employed for the benefits of nature and, in turn, for the long term benefit of the human race. It is believed that this characteristic of the new paradigm creates the need for mature and competent professionals. Thus, the new sustainable society will need to identify non-material means for non-material needs. In response, professional development will need to include the practice of interdisciplinary and the practice of non-technical and lifelong learning skills.

Fight versus Fit with Nature:
     Technodevelopment versus Ecodevelopment

The difference between technodevelopment and ecodevelopment is the difference between a mechanical contrivance or tool and a living organism. Technology does not make built environments; people make them. Technodevelopment is based on the modernist illusion of technological determinism. It is an assault on nature. Ecodevelopment is a package of concepts, ethics, and programs. It provides designers and planners a criterion of social and ecological rationality that are different from the market logic (Sacks, 1987).  It is rooted in the real need to fit human settlement within the patterns of nature. 

Politically, ecodevelopment is decentralized and democratic. Socially and culturally, it reflects the diverse reality of human affairs and the tapestry of life, which make every portion of the built environment works well. Economically, it adopts the premise that economics and ecology are both essentially to do with the flow of energy and materials through a system and value is a social construct.

The preceding three paradigm shifts delineate that the way we think about our environments has changed, that the interdisciplinary thinking is now taking place, that economy and ecology should be integrated, and that ecodevelopment in the very near future will definitely replace technodevelopment. These shifts lead to an analysis of the relation between sustainable development and ecotourism.

 Sustainability, Sustainable Development, and Ecotourism

 The linguistic definition of sustainability is to endure without giving way or yielding (Webster Dictionary, 1991). When looking at recent debates on sustainability one can observe that implicit within these debates is a criticism against the values, attitudes, and tools by which most of the built environment has been produced over the years, that has led to social alienation and environmental depletion. Several definitions of sustainability correspond with this criticism, where some definitions focus on environmental criteria while others integrate socio-cultural aspects into environmental concerns. 

On the one hand, the statements made by Lyle (1985) and Davies (1994) can exemplify the definitions that focus on environmental criteria. Lyle reports that the objective of sustainability is to provide intentionally designed and managed ecosystems that represent symbiosis of urban and natural processes. Davies places emphasis on the same criteria when he argues that the aim is to avoid the shortcomings in our culture in terms of the way we presently build and live, and re-introduce building as a process which is concerned with the impact it has on the people and the environment involved.

On the other hand, the integration of environmental and socio-cultural aspects can be envisaged within the declarations made by the international community. In Rio declaration, sustainability is seen as staying within the capacity of the natural environment while improving the quality of life and offering our children opportunities at least as good as those available to us. The declaration of World Congress of Architects, 1993, confirms this view when it mentions that we are socially, culturally, and economically interdependent. Sustainability in the context of this interdependence requires partnership, equity, and balance among all parties.

The preceding discussion suggests that the main idea behind the notion of sustainability is to create an effective system of resource distribution and utilization with a long term perspective in mind. A sustainable society in this domain, is one that can persist over generations, one that is far sighted enough, flexible enough, and wise enough not to undermine either its physical or its social systems of support (ECE, 1996).

Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (ECE, 1996). As this is a very general statement, it is necessary to elaborate the definition further based on the literature that has been developed over the last decade (Lyle, 1993; Stern et al., 1992; Rees, 1990). The concept of sustainable development, with emphasis on environmental sensitivity, has presented a great challenge to both developed and developing countries. It has an essentially relative and normative character, which makes it difficult to put into practice. In this kind of development, socio-economic objectives are balanced with the constraints that nature sets. Thus, it is based on the principles of self reliance, fulfillment of basic needs and an emphasis on the quality of life.  Based on the above definition, one can conceive the following set of objectives to be achieved by implementing the sustainable development concept:

Achieving explicit ecological and socioeconomic objectives.

Imposing ecological limits on material consumption while fostering qualitative development at the  community and individual levels. Figure (1) Achieving the balance between environment and development; between natural and built environments.The implications of the above objectives in ecological, social and economic terms for design, planning and management of human settlements are to be envisioned as follows:

Appropriate technology and ecologically based designs.
Low energy consumption
Selective and efficient use of resources
Ecological principles to guide land use planning
Participatory design and planning
Waste and urban recycling

To conclude, sustainability and sustainable development involve two domains that should not be ignored or oversimplified, economic/ environmental on one side, and socio cultural on the other.  The questions that should be raised at this point are: 

What exactly is ecotourism, and what is the relationship between ecotourism and sustainable development? 

The following discussion attempts to answer these two questions. 

Tourism as a global phenomenon has emerged as a relatively new social activity. Before the emergence of tourism as business and industry, interaction between different societies took place through commercial trading, wars, or migrations. Thus, cultural exchange was relatively limited. With the development of communication and transportation means people began to travel for the sake of traveling, which launched a process of cultural globlalization that has been accelerated in recent years by further developments of information industry. Concomitantly, tourism has become a major source of impact on the social, cultural, built, and natural environments.  It is an attractive phenomenon that affects both the hosts and the visitors. According to TES, tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. More and more countries are recognizing this and are developing measures to ensure that tourism should not have negative impacts on cultural and natural environments. 

The latest trend in travel industry is ecotourism, a newly emerged type of tourism that combines preserving natural environments and sustaining the well being of human cultures that inhabit those environments. Ecotourism, said to be first devised as a term by Hector Ceballos Lascurain, promotes environmental responsibility and ensures that visitors take nothing but photographs, and leave nothing but footprints. The activities of ecotourists range from visiting archaeological digs, bird watching, photo safaris, expeditions into desert regions, to historical tours, and interaction with indigenous cultures. 

In her article, Ecotourism: The New Face of Travel, Carla Hunt (1998) argues that the general concept of ecotourism arose with the realization of the potential benefits in combining people interest in nature with their concern for the environment.  However, ecotourism has another dimension since it is believed that it can be a perfect economic activity for local populations.

The relation between ecotourism and sustainable development can be found in the many interpretations of ecotourism that currently exist. Three definitions that appear to be the most comprehensive while sharing the same meanings and incorporating concepts underlying sustainability. Ceballos Lascurain (1996) defines it as traveling to undisturbed areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery, and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations found in those areas. The Ecotourism Society of America defines ecotourism as the responsible travel, often to developing countries, that conserves natural environments and sustains the well being of local people. The third definition, by the Ecotourism Australia, is that ecotourism is the ecologically sustainable tourism that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation, and conservation.

The preceding definitions avow that ecotourism is a sub component of sustainable development. Thus, it can be argued that it is a key player in the understanding of human history and its interaction with the natural environment; it is also a key player in the spread of environmental knowledge and awareness. In this respect, sustainable development is the backbone of ecotourism. 

Ecotourism is a responsible way of travel; it is an alternative to traditional travel, but it is not for everyone. It appeals to people who love nature and local cultures. It allows those people to enjoy an attraction with an impact in such a way that local culture and environment are unimpaired. Thus, it should be stressed that tourism industry should care for the visitors and for the places they visit. It preserves and conserves nature and culture. However, the question that will remain challenging in the future is 

How much change in or alternations of natural and cultural environments will be acceptable?
Figure (2) Conceptual sketch clarifying the way in which natural resources can be preserved.  The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Very simple systems can achieve multiple benefits

3. Why Ecotourism in Egypt?
According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 1996), the demand for ecotourism and nature oriented tourism is on a rapid rise. The WTTC indicated that nature based tourism, which includes ecotourism, has been estimated to account for over 15% of all international travel expenditures.

Tourism industry in Egypt has traditionally focused on cultural tourism, especially with the presence of ancient Egyptian antiquities that have a well earned worldwide reputation. Until the mid seventies this was the main determinant of Egyptian tourism (Salama, 1998). However, over the last decade new regions have been undergoing strong tourism growth, especially Sinai Peninsula and the Red Sea region. According to Adel Rady, the Chief Executive of the TDA (1999), there is a growing number of tourists who seek new destinations and whose priorities are different from those of mainstream tourism. They seek peace, wilderness, local culture, and color.
TDA owned lands stretch across different regions, from the Red Sea and Sinai Peninsula in the East to the Western Desert and its wonderful oases in the West, and from the wetlands in the North to Abu Simbel and Lake Nasser in the South. Generically, each of these regions has its own climatic conditions, physical features, and cultural resources. Specifically, each of which has its own characteristics in terms of topography, landscape, wildlife, archaeological resources, cultural setting, architectural character, and building materials and technology They enjoy distinctive and rich biological and cultural diversity. The characteristics of these regions make Egypt an appealing and excellent ecotourism destination.  They can be classified into four potential ecosystems; desert, coastal, riverine, and wetland, and each of which portrays a number of ecotourism destinations. The following Table illustrates the most important attributes of these environments.
 

Table (1) Ecotourism destinations in Egypt, and the associated attractions, activities, and cultures.

Although Egypt enjoys this unique richness in natural and cultural resources, the dependency of tourism on Environment does not appear to be well understood within the tourism industry. In Egypt, the practice of ecotourism is in its conceptual stage that has not yet well materialized and nor it has reached its mature level. Rady (1999) argues that many regions of Egypt are still remote and without modern infrastructure. Although this limits the expansion of traditional tourism, it may turn out to be an opportunity for the development of another type of travel experience and concomitantly ecotourism.  In this respect, one can assert that ecotourism can bring numerous socioeconomic benefits to Egypt, in terms of generating foreign exchange, creating local employment, stimulating national and local economies, and increasing and fostering environmental awareness and education.  It definitely helps preserve the Egyptian natural and cultural resources tourists come to enjoy, experience and appreciate. 

 Ecological Design, Ecotecture, and Ecolodges

Ecological design can be envisaged in terms of sustainable architecture philosophy that can be labeled as ecotecture for tourism facilities. Such philosophy is regarded as an approach that demands an understanding of the consequences of certain decisions and actions. Aspects of ecotecture development process can be understood when compared with the development process of conventional architecture in terms of goals, means, resources, and politics as shown in Table (2).
 

Table (2) Comparative analysis between the development processes of conventional architecture and ecotecture.

Other aspects of ecotecture are grounded on the characteristics of nature. Nature abhors straight lines and exact repetition. Nothing is ever the same twice. Symmetry exists in nature, but even in symmetry, things are not identical. If we look at the symmetry of the human being, one finds that both sides are similar, but different; developed according to the same pattern, but with individual realization. Ecotecture is organic and hand made, not machine made. Thus, its components are never identical in the way that machines produced objects or building components.

Ecotecture for tourism development can be realized by striving toward the achievement of the following standards: 

Provide education for visitors on historic and natural features, wild life, and native cultural resources.
Involve indigenous populations in operations of tourism facilities in order to foster local pride and visitor exposure to cultural values and traditions.
Provide research for and development of demonstration projects that illustrate ways in which human impacts can be minimized.
Educate visitors that knowledge of local environments is valuable and may empower their ability to make future informed decisions. 

As the ecotourism industry expands in Egypt, well planned and ecologically sensitive facilities are in high demand. In fact they have become a necessity. This demand can be met with ecolodges: small scale facilities that provide visitors an environmental experience about the natural and cultural world of a region allowing them to be in close contact with culture and nature. 

A criticism against traditional tourism and traditional tourist facilities may provide insights into the understanding of the ecolodge concept and characteristics. 

The problem with 5 star resorts in ecotourism destinations, or in out of the usual places is how they are being supported. The answer is that an outsider develops a property, the profits go to the developer. Locals are hired often at minimal wages for the service to the tourists. This immediately creates a barrier between the locals and the tourists. Other problems arise too: What is done with the waste that is generated? Water and food: Where do they come from? How do people arriving? Is overuse destroying the immediate surrounding? What overall impact has this resort made? All these questions are challenging to traditional tourist facilities.

The problem is multifaceted. The socio cultural impact of traditional tourism is also a crucial issue. When tourists arrive at their destinations, they bring with them different beliefs and behaviors, which influence the host culture (Anton, 1999). The influence of tourists on the societies they visit is much stronger than the opposite. The majority of tourists come from affluent countries and dominant cultures, which, relatively, unaffected by visitors from smaller local cultures. One problem is that foreign culture, as portrayed by tourists appear out of context. On the other hand, tourists, while on vacation, change their styles of socializing. As a result, the view that local people receive of the culture of the visitors is not only strange to them, but also inaccurate.

Linguistically, the term ecolodge can be divided into two components ECO and LODGE. On the one hand, the term ECO is derived from the science of ecology that is defined as the science of the relationships between organisms and their environments and is concerned with the study of the detrimental effects of modern civilization on the environment. On the other hand, the term LODGE refers to cottage, dwelling or cabin used as a temporary shelter or a small house on the grounds of a park used by a caretaker or gatekeeper (American Heritage Dictionary).

The preceding linguistic definition matches definitions made by specialists in the field. According to Hawkins et al. (1995), the term is a tourism industry label used to identify a nature dependent facility that meets the principles of ecotourism. Such a facility is developed and managed in an environmentally sensitive manner in order to protect its operating environment. According Ceballos Lascurain (1997), The most important thing about an ecolodge is that the ecolodge is not the most important thing. It is the quality of the surrounding environment that most counts. Other critical concerns would include the nearby natural and cultural attractions, the way in which ecotourism is operated and marketed, and the way in which local people are involved in the process of developing and operating ecolodges. 

Salama and Elleithy (1997) developed further elaboration, since they argue that with a design that respects the environment and is in harmony with the landscape and cultural setting of an area, an ecolodge is constructed using recycled and locally produced building materials. It relies on solar or alternative energies, recycles the waste and the wastewater it generates, serves locally grown and produced food. According to Salama (1998) an ecolodge would be a small scale facility that blends in with its surroundings, offering visitors an environmental experience of the natural and cultural world around them. The ecolodge concept affirms that building footprints and other necessary impositions on terra firma should be designed in harmony with natural landscape and cultural setting. 

 Redefining the Ecolodge in the Egyptian Context

 The ecolodge concept is generic. In order to be useful it has to be redefined according to the attributes of the Egyptian sub ecosystems. The characteristics of ecolodges can also be well clarified within the Egyptian context when compared with traditional tourist facilities since they are different in many respects as shown in Table (3), adapted from Hawkins et al. (1995). 
 

Table (3) Comparative analysis of traditional tourist facilities and ecolodges.

Any ecolodge project requires the adoption of ecotectural approach to design. This is based on four principles that should be the main the concern of the designers of an ecolodge. These are:

Design solutions stem from the physical features of a place and its interaction with the cultural setting around it.
Design should be based on ecological and environmental constraints.
Local communities should be actively involved in the design and implementation process, since they have acquired knowledge and expertise in design and building over the years.
Design should be integrated harmoniously with nature and architectural forms should not compete, but complement the natural landscape.
Figure (3) Two different attitudes about the natural environment, illustrating features of ecolodge design and development. (Sketches by Haytham Hashem, a student of architecture, at Misr International University, Egypt)

Two Different Attitudes about the Natural Environment 
Altering the natural landscape and building concrete blocks
Damaging wild life and killing birds
Damaging the natural environment and cutting palm trees
Disruption of marine life, damaging coral reefs, and taking small see species
Waste and Garbage is combusted on site
Western image for personnel 
Buildings are not competing with natural landscaping. They complement it and are in harmony with it
Bird watching activity
Conserving the natural environment. Palm trees are kept
Snorkeling, swimming, and exploring reefs
Garbage is separated and waste is recycled
Local image for personnel

According to the classification of ecosystems / environments in Egypt, one can argue that four basic types of ecolodges can be developed according to the availability of local building materials and the dominating traditional construction techniques. Table (4) clarifies a preliminary review of existing building materials and construction techniques available in those environments. 
 

Table (4) Generic inventory of local building materials and traditional construction techniques in different environments in Egypt.

6. Ecolodges: Conceptions and misconceptions

While arguing for ecolodge development in Egypt, it is essential to clarify some of the misconceptions that the professional community, developers, and investors held about ecolodges. Some people believe that ecolodges are cheap commodities that have no aesthetic values. Others hold some preconceived ideas about ecolodges as some tents or very cheap squatters, or accommodation units scattered in the desert or on a piece of land. This is crucial since it might suppress all the efforts that encourage investment in ecolodges. I would argue that ecolodges are not cheap accommodations; they can reach the 5 star level with high aesthetic values. The following discussion attempts to clarify and correct these misconceptions.

Ten Principle for the Aesthetics of Ecolodge Architecture

As part of a comprehensive approach to ecolodge development, it is necessary to incorporate some aesthetic aspects that ensure that ecolodge development will not provide a Carte Blanche for aesthetic chaos. Prince Charles has provided a set of ten principles for design. Although they have universal applicability, I would argue that they can provide a serviceable warp and weft on which a designer can weave several aesthetic aspects for ecolodge design and development. Table (5) provides a description of these principles.
 
 

Table (5) Aesthetic principles of ecolodge architecture

Al Maha Resort: An Example from the Region
A tourist facility in a nature reserve in the United Arab Emirates calls upon traditions while accommodating modernity and responding to the beauty of the place. (Architectural Review / Middle East, Issue no. 3, 1999)
Al Maha resort is an example that helps correct some of the misconceptions about the ecolodge. The discussion of this leading project can be classified into three categories: 
1) the architectural and construction concept,
2) activities, personnel, and services, and
3) some miscellaneous aspects and measures.

The resort, architecturally, is a deliberate attempt by Schuster Pechtold & Partners to show that tourist buildings in the Middle East can be designed without rejecting tradition and losing sight of context. It combines Bedouin simplicity with modern luxury. The designers were careful not to confuse the functional imperatives of traditional Islamic architecture with decorative style. The scheme is developed as a Bedouin encampment with about 25 guest suites housed in individual tented structures and distributed among the sand dunes. At the center of the resort is the main building that accommodates reception area, traditional majlis, library and conference room, bar, business center, and shops. Paths that are romantically illuminated at night link the main building with guest suites. 
Figure
4) Sketch of a Suite Owner, Rashid Taqui. Source: Architectural Review / Middle East, Issue no. 3, 1999
Figures 
5 & 6) Photographs illustrate the main building of Al Maha resort, and the individual suites distributed across 
the desert landscape. Source: Architectural Review / Middle East, Issue no. 3, 1999

Traditions that have evolved over centuries in most hot dry climates are incorporated in the buildings. Typically, they are inward looking with courtyards planted with indigenous plants and/or verandahs allowing for interaction with nature. Thick walls and small narrow openings, shaded by tented roofs creating thermal comfort, slowing down the hear transfer from outside to inside. The thickness of walls is usually 60.0 cm. and they are built up of concrete blocks with very high thermal capacity. In order to minimize the negative visual impact of the resort on the surrounding environment, concrete walls have been rendered with the color of the desert. 

The Arabic theme dominates the interior environment of the resort. Natural materials have been used, and as far as possible craft skills have been incorporated. Palm trunks are used in the internal columns. Pink and yellow sandstone is used for floor tiling. Furniture, handcrafted in UAE or Oman, is made of wood from renewable sources. 
Figures 
7) Floor plans of Al Maha resort main building and the typical guest suites. 
Source: Architectural Review / Middle East, Issue no. 3, 1999

Al Maha resort has its own team of dedicated Arabian adventure guides and safari drivers. Daily activities and management policies reflect the core concept of the resort, since guests are to enjoy guided safaris into the desert, trekking by camels and horses. Activities are arranged to provide a comprehensive understanding of Arabian customs and traditions, the desert environment, its archaeology and natural history. Excursions beyond the resort are arranged to Hajjar Mountains, day trips to near by towns interacting with the local way of life. Also, dune driving lessons in four wheel vehicles are conducted, and guests try sand skiing and dune buggy rides (Eleishe, 1998). 

According to the interview conducted by Azza Eleishe in June 1998 with Thomas Hardt, the project manager of the resort, one can find that several measures are developed to ensure a comprehensive protection of natural and cultural resources. 

Periodically, the resort runs environmental education programs for the general public, on conservation methods. Craft work, furniture, and goods sold in the resort are sourced from local craftsmen, and whenever possible goods supplied to the resort support local communities and businesses. Other measures include reintroducing the UAE flora and fauna. The landscape serves practical as well as aesthetic functions. It provides abundant feeding grounds for large animals as well as ground cover for small burrowing animals, birds, and insects. It also serves in dune stabilization and for recreating pockets of oases around the main public areas. 

The development has a number of water holes to attract wildlife, which visitors are able to watch. Despite the near presence of humans, animals will not become domesticated, since there is no tampering with nature. Breeding programs for bird species are currently under development. The animal breeding and the reintroduction program covers a five year period. Indigenous flora will be reintroduced in two phases. Natural vegetation that has diminished because of over gazing will be reestablished first, followed by the reintroduction of species, which have disappeared over the years.

Resource conservation measures include design, construction, water, energy, waste emissions, and staff training. Environmental initiatives extend from recycling measures to water conservation using the latest technology. Water used in the resort is recycled and used for irrigation of the resort landscape. All water used is purified, recycled, re filtered, and used for ecological rehabilitation purposes.  Solar power is used for lighting and air conditioning in staff accommodation, as well as for electrified fencing, hot water in staff accommodation. On the other hand, gas is used for cooking and kitchen needs.  Services within the resort that require a large amount of water are subcontracted to companies who show responsibility toward the environment by using biodegradable products and non plastic substances in their processing. This applies to suppliers of any foodstuffs, drinks, and other goods (Eleishe, 1998). 
To conclude, 
Al Maha resort is the first ecotourism development in the Gulf and the Middle East region, to be designed intentionally for that purpose. It signals a responsible move by the owners into the field of ecotourism. It adopts the premises that ecotourism facilities are not cheap accommodations scattered in the desert. They can be well designed and managed, generating profit for the developer and the community.  The project sets the example for more future sustainable tourism development by preserving the natural beauty of the region, its habitat, and its traditional cultural heritage while succeeding in promoting tourism as a viable source for economic development.

Proto Ecolodges in Egypt: informal, unregulated, but positive attempts

Ecolodge development in Egypt is in its infancy. However, several attempts have been made to develop eco friendly facilities over the last 10 years or so. In 1997, a survey of proto ecolodges has been conducted and four candidate facilities have been identified. These are Basata camp, Castle Beach resort, and Meditation resort On Nweiba Taba road, and Safari camp which lies close to Fayoum, south east of Cairo. (It should be noted that over the last three years several similar facilities have been developed to accommodate the rising demand of ecotourism). A comparative analysis of the four lodges was then undertaken, which covered descriptive and qualitative aspects of the lodges. The results of this analysis can be found in Ashraf Salama s article on Ecolodges, Meeting the Demand on Environmentally Sustainable Tourism, 1998, and also in the TDA publication on Guidelines for Ecolodge Development in Egypt, 1999.

The comparative analysis of the four lodges reveals a varied degree of eco friendliness with regard to materials, construction, facilities, activities, energy, water, and waste. The discussion here is limited to the positive aspects. Thus several positive aspects can be outlines as follows:

Natural resources such as coral reefs, sea life, and desert life are protected and preserved. 
The special character of the desert is conserved and enhanced through local architecture.
The natural building materials such as bamboo, reed, beit shaar, and wood is non intrusive to the environment and supportive to local economy. Moreover, such materials can be easily modified to accommodate changing needs.
Using space between accommodation units provides a feeling of privacy. 
The overall atmosphere offers general appreciation and awareness of the environment and its local culture, and provides a sense of belonging.
Social interaction and verbal communication are encouraged through the absence of modern life entertainment facilities.
Local people are part of the business and benefit from it.
Minimal building and construction waste has been produced.

It should be noted that Basata camp, the first eco friendly facility in Egypt, appears to be the most efficient operation from several perspectives. Unlike other facilities, it is built entirely from natural materials, and although it has not employed ecotectural techniques (aspects associated with wind energy, solar energy, cross ventilation, building orientation, and wind scoops), it does use some strategies for energy conservation. Diesel generators are its major source for energy. However, electrical power is restricted to the lobby, front desk, and the gathering space.

An efficient system has been devised for water resource management. The camp has a desalination plant that currently produces 500m3 of high salinity waste per day. This rejected water from the plant is used in part for toilet flushing, and partly for making clay bricks that are used in the construction of new units. Plates and dishes are washed up with salt water, then rinsed with fresh water. Press taps that stop automatically after seconds are used so as to limit water waste. Toilets are grouped and separated from the units and bungalows.

Also, a reasonable solid management system is another efficient operation at Basata. Garbage is separated into organic and inorganic materials. Organic waste goes to the animal farm, while animal waste goes to the green house. Inorganic waste is separated into plastic, which is shredded and moved to the city for recycling; glass, which is moved and reused in Cairo; and aluminum waste, which is recycled by staff for their benefit. 

All eco friendly tourist facilities represent individual attempts to develop and run ecotourism operations that are based on the inspirations and interpretation of nature and desert loving owners. 

Figures (8 & 9) photographs illustrate general aerial view and the outdoor area of the main gathering place of Basata camp.
Figure (10) Images of proto ecolodges in different ecotourism destinations.

 Ecolodges in Egypt: formal beginnings and tda efforts

The beginning of formal attempts toward realizing the ecolodge concept in Egypt started in 1997. The Environmentally Sustainable Tourism Project (EST) that was undertaken by Winrock International, and was funded by the US AID in Egypt, defines the recognition of all parties of the paramount importance of sustainable tourism strategies. The project has realized the serious needs to advocate a new type of tourism development and practice, which is environmentally sensitive and promotes the protection of the environment. Parallel to this project, the Tourism Development Authority (TDA) suggested the need for guiding principles for ecotourism development to be operated by the private sector in coordination with government authorities.

A two day awareness seminar has been held in Quseir on March 9-11th, 1997, headed by Dr. Adel Rady, TDA Chief Executive. The objectives of the seminar were to:

Provide a working definition of ecolodge concept in Egypt
Review attempts made to develop ecolodges in Egypt
Discuss potentials and constraints for future ecolodge development. 

The main speaker in this seminar was Hector Ceballos Lascurain. Other professionals and investors were invited either to deliver visions or to participate in the discussions. Among the speakers were Ammar Khammash from Jordan; Ramy El Dahan, Samah Ghoniem, Hosam Helmy, Sherif El Ghamrawy, and Ashraf Salama from Egypt. The seminar ended with some concluding remarks from Adel Rady and David Smith, EST resident chief of party, and followed by a field trip 100 km on the coastal strip south of Quseir. The seminar was very successful and interactive, and marked the very beginning of actions in the ecolodge sphere in Egypt. The enthusiastic participation of attendants was very striking. The result of this seminar was a concept report on ecolodge development in coastal and desert areas, developed by Ceballos Lascurain. 

A second seminar held in Cairo on September 1997. The EST project team together with TDA, EEAA, Red Sea Governorate, and US AID representatives, and a large number of audience of investors and professionals discussed different aspects and several issues for ecolodge development and presented their ideas about how best it can be implemented. This was another successful event.

The result of the two seminars was a document on ecolodge development in Egypt, volume no 9 of the EST project. It presented ecolodge measures on design, construction, and economic feasibility. Although the document was very well structured, and has excellent instructions to follow, it was overwhelming and did not provide room for creativity and innovation. Investors did not need a blue print on how to build and operate an ecolodge, but rather general guidelines. As a result, a decision was taken by TDA to develop specific set of guidelines that correspond to the Egyptian context. The author was subcontracted as a technical writer for this activity.

The Policy Implementation Unit (PIU) of TDA has helped in transforming the guidelines from a regular document into a visually appealing rendered one.  The document is regarded as a short manual and represents TDA vision of what an ecolodge in the Egyptian context can be. The manual has been published and presented in November 1998 seminar to guide and encourage investors, in the hope that it will stimulate ideas about ecolodges that promote the natural wonders of Egypt. It should be mentioned here the efforts undertaken by PIU in 1998, where a series of seminars and workshops have been conducted to raise environmental awareness among the professional community and to encourage investment in ecotourism facilities.

Currently, TDA and its consultants undertake efforts to develop an ecolodge demonstration project that will act as a guiding example for ecolodge design and construction. Other efforts by TDA in collaboration with the Red Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative (RSSTI) are to provide the investor community with an illustrative set of guidelines that helps provide deeper insights into ecolodge design and construction. In addition to these activities that pertain to ecolodge development, other efforts toward the realization of real sustainable tourism are being carried out through several programs such as public awareness, environmental management systems, environmental impact assessment, best practices, and capacity building. 

The Ecolodge Design Process

In an interview with Christopher Alexander in 1971, Max Jacobson ask:
What do you think of design methodology is trying to do?
Chris Alexander replied:
Interesting question. Obviously, the intent is to try and create well defined procedures that will enable people to design better buildings.

According to Sanoff (1977), the design process is intended to be a logical treatment and rigorous reasoning for solving environmental problems. Schon (1988) confirms and argues that design is a process of reconciling conflicting values. It is a reflective conversation of the materials of a situation.

The ecolodge design process involves extensive research as a pre design phase. The purpose is to incorporate knowledge generated from research into design. In fact, it acts as raw materials for design. Thus, the design of an ecolodge should be grounded on knowledge, since inadequate knowledge handicaps and depresses the general level of design. Concomitantly, the design process encompasses two major phases, each of which is a multi step process. The two phases are:
Awareness / Perception, or the Research Phase
Decision Making / Implementation, or the Design Phase

The research phase includes three steps. These are:
Evaluating the site and its surrounding landscape
Developing the architectural program
Defining design imperatives

Evaluating the site and its landscape is crucial to realize the most appropriate use with minimum negative impact on the natural and cultural resources. On the one hand, the landscape evaluation is to know what is there. The purpose of which is to document the natural and cultural resources on resource maps, to define environmental limits, and develop a management system that minimizes the impact on the environment. This includes the number of visitors and length of stay. On the other hand, site evaluation is the examination of the site in a manner that illuminates the invisible issues. The purpose of which is to develop a site analysis matrix that acts as a guide that illustrates site constraints. Several issues are considered such as the compatibility of the use with adjacent lands, the limits of acceptable change, physical features within the site such as topography, road networks, views, orientation, etc. Other issues include several questions such as why do we believe a tourist would come to the area? How do we expect tourists to behave? Is the development beneficial for the community?

Developing the architectural program is to ask what activities a tourist would be interested in? Thus, a process of identifying appropriate activities should be involved in order to explore options of use, to realize whether or not the proposed functions can support and protect the natural and cultural attractions in and around the site, as well as functions that may benefit local population. In this step, a goal setting workshop is envisaged based on the assumptions that objectives generate activities and activities generate spaces and places. The result of this programming phase would be a list of activities, spaces, areas, and space adjacency requirements.

Defining design imperatives is the articulation of a set of guidelines specific to the site under development. Based on the site analysis matrix and the architectural program several planning and design imperatives should be developed, acting as guiding principles needed for the design phase.

It should be stressed here that the outcome of the research phase would be a resource map, site analysis matrix, and the architectural program. This phase, to be successful, the involvement of different parties and key players is essential. A team of experts of environmental planning, archaeology, biology disciplines is needed. In addition, the participation of representatives of the local community, NGOs, and the tourism sector is highly beneficial for this process.

The design phase includes three steps. These are:
Developing design alternatives
Providing a feedback mechanism for alternative evaluation
Developing final design schematics

The development of design alternatives involves the act of design itself. The purpose is to develop a number of competing design solutions, where design imperatives should be incorporated in each solution. The second step is to provide a feedback mechanism for evaluating the alternatives. It is conceived to get input from all key players, professionals, local population, and tourism officials. This may take place through an alternative evaluation or a decision making workshop. The result of which would be a decision on which alternative best fits design imperatives and needs to be further developed. The third step in the design phase would be the development of final design schematics, followed by the preparation of construction documents.

Although every ecolodge design process would have a specific set of imperatives, a generic design decision making checklist can be envisioned:

Respect the natural and cultural resources of the site.
Educate visitors about the resources and the appropriate responses.
Use the resource as the primary experience of the site.
Use the simplest technology appropriate to the functional needs.
Provide minimal environmental disruption.
Optimize use and flexibility of spaces.
Provide equal access to the full spectrum of people.
Minimize impacts on natural and cultural resources.

According to the preceding checklist, several design issues should be involved while developing the ecolodge design alternatives, and the final design solution. These are:
Capacity
Building materials, natural / local vs. synthetic, local construction techniques
Harmony with nature, colors and forms
Seasonal climatic changes, building orientation, and the use of ecotectural techniques
Visitor experience, recreation, and education / environmental awareness

Other non design issues should be taken into account. These are:
Impacts on the environment during the construction process
The environmental and social benefits of using building materials
Food and services, local vs. international
First aid services
Transportation, installation, and maintenance aspects of building materials
Optimization of water use
Waste recycling, garbage separation, and organic waste collection (pit latrines, trenches, dry toilets, etc.).

PLADEW: An Ecolodge Post Occupancy Evaluation Tool

Evaluation is a word that relates to the concept of values, and values encompass several factors that include beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes. Those factors influence judgments, identification of needs, and discrimination among competing demands (Salama, 1996 & 1999). Unfortunately, there is no tradition in the practice of architecture in which architects are expected to explicitly evaluate their work or that of others. Thus, they know very little about the performance of the built environment, and particularly from the viewpoint of the community and the users. Post occupancy evaluation (POE) studies are intended to provide reliable, useful and valid information about the physical world. The results of which are directed to those who design, manage, and make decisions about the environment. According to Zube (1981), evaluation studies aim to provide information to improve the quality of design decision making. 

The question that should be posed at this point is:
 Why ecolodges should be evaluated? 
Simply, the answer to this question is that ecolodges should be evaluated to:

- Develop a database about the quality of existing ecolodges.
- Identify existing problems or needs and their characteristics, and conceive panacea or remedies to 
  those problems.
- Provide feedback mechanism for predicting the quality of future ecolodges. 

In order to achieve the above objectives, the author has devised four sets of questions in 1998 as a tool for ecolodge post occupancy evaluation. Unlike other approaches that rely on judging a project in an office for approval or so or developing a criticism based on subjective judgments, this tool offers consultants and reviewers a follow up procedure for evaluating an ecolodge project after being constructed and occupied. Each set of questions pertain to one of the crucial factors: 1) Planning/Zonning,2) Landscaping, 3) Designing, and 4) Energy and Waste: PLADEW. The evaluation process requires photographing, developing notation diagrams, and note taking to supplement the factors. This evaluation procedure has been pre tested several times involving the following steps:

Numerical scores from 1 to 7 are assigned to each question underlying the factors 
    (1= highly appropriate, 7= very inappropriate).
Responding to each question underlying each factor.
Analyzing the numerical ratings by computation of average scores for each factor, then computation 
           for the overall scores of the ecolodge. 
Developing concluding comments based on the overall appraisal.

Figure (12) Conceptual diagram illustrating factors involved in PLADEW post occupancy evaluation tool

Conclusion: A Futuristic Epic for Ecotourism Development in Egypt

This article has discussed the paradigm shifts toward the environmental responsibility of architecture for tourism. An argument on sustainability, sustainable development and ecotourism has been developed, and their interrelationships have been envisioned. The article has provided a discussion of the reasons for ecotourism development in Egypt and has offered an ecological design / ecotectural approach for developing ecotourism facilitates. A criticism against traditional tourism and its facilities helped envision the ecolodge concept and characteristics that have been redefined within the Egyptian context, illustrating different attitudes about the natural environment.

A discussion of the principles of the aesthetics of the architecture of ecolodges has been debated and Al Maha resort of UAE has been analyzed as an example that clarifies conceptions and misconceptions about ecolodges. Positive aspects of examples of proto ecolodges in Egypt have been outlined although they present informal, unregulated attempts of nature and desert loving owners and developers. Efforts of TDA and International agencies have been reported. The ecolodge design process has been conceptualized to provide interest groups with a mechanism for ecolodge development. A post occupancy evaluation tool for ecolodge appraisal has been offered to achieve the broad goals of POE, namely developing data bases about the quality of existing ecolodges, identifying problems and constraints, and to be in a better position for predicting the quality of future ecolodges in Egypt.

A set of four recommendations can be conceptualized based on the arguments developed and the examples presented in this article. These can be conceived as follows:

Because of high ecotourism potential in Egypt, it is recognized that ecolodge development   can become an important factor and a key tool in the sustainable tourism process.

A true ecotourism and ecolodge culture has to spread out amongst different sectors of  Egyptian society so that all key players (local authorities, NGOs, private sector, professionals,  local communities) are properly and actively involved, and are benefited from the process.

The creation of appropriate regulations and guidelines does not mean the end of the process Guidelines do not provide blue prints on how ecolodges can be designed and built. The development of ecolodge demonstration projects and pilot projects in selected relevant sites  should be regarded as one of the most practical ways of demonstrating concrete examples,  and that should be coordinated with TDA together with the active participation of developers  and consultants.

Intensive and extensive training programs are needed in the fields of sustainable development   and ecotecture with the participation of architecture and planning schools in this process. It   should be mentioned here that there is a real need to positively develop the attitudes of our   future professionals toward the responsibility to the environment.  In response, architecture   students in two universities are now assigned by the author to investigate the importance of    ecotourism in the Red Sea region, and to design and apply ecotectural techniques in   eco friendly tourist facilities and ecolodge design projects. 
 
 

References and Bibliography

Web Sites 
The Ecotourism Society / EST 
http://www.ecotourism.org/ecolodgesup.html 
http://www.ecotourism.org/ecolodgesup.html

The Ecotourism Society / EST 
http://www.ecotourism.org/ 
http://www.ecotourism.org/

Sustainable Tourism Research Interest Group / STRING 
http://www.yorku.ca/research/dkproj/string/rohr/ 
http://www.yorku.ca/research/dkproj/string/rohr/

World Travel and Tourism Council / WTTC 
http://www.wttc.org/ 
http://www.wttc.org/

Eco Source Network 
http://www.ecosourcenetwork.com/ 
http://www.ecosourcenetwork.com/

Ecopolis Australia 
http://www.ecopolis.com.au/index.html 
http://www.ecopolis.com.au/index.html

Urban Ecology Australia 
http://www.urbanecology.org.au/ 
http://www.urbanecology.org.au/

Green Hotels Association 
http://greenhotels.com 
http://greenhotels.com
http://canadina 

The Canadian Rockies Net 
http://canadianrockies.net

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